Drawing on data from five rounds of the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey (MHWS) collected between December 2021 and June 2023 with more than 12,000 respondents per round, this report analyzes individual migration, migration in which one or a few household members leave the household. To complement this analysis, we utilize data from the Myanmar Migration Assessment, carried out in June and July 2023 in a sub-sample of MHWS households with household members who have migrated since 2013.
Over the year and a half period, from December 2021 to June 2023 an estimated 6,451,394 household members 15 and older, 11.8 percent of the population and 19.9 percent of the adult population, left their households. Kayah had the highest percentage of migrants, followed by Kachin, Kayin, and Mon, with migration rates over 25 percent of the adult population. Significantly more men migrated than women. Over the period, more individuals left for work within Myanmar than for overseas work or for other reasons including marriage, education, or to join family.
Using the Myanmar Migration Assessment sub-sample of 5,455 of individuals who have migrated since 2013, we analyze the migration process and destination characteristics. Most migrants in our sample only migrated once, 91 percent. Between 2021 and 2022, there was a huge jump in migration from 10 percent of the sample to 24 percent. Further, migration was already 23 percent of our sample in June 2023. Therefore, individual migration is likely to be much higher in 2023 than 2022. Between 2021 and 2023, most of the individual migration was internal, 79 percent versus 21 percent overseas. Internal migration and migration abroad are increasing at the same rate.
Most internal migration was to Yangon, followed by Mandalay, and Shan. Around 27 percent of all individuals migrated to Yangon over the whole period. Migration to Mandalay decreased from 2010 to 2023, while migration to Shan increased. Migration abroad is mainly to Thailand and Malaysia. Most individuals migrated to find better employment. Employment was the most important driver of migration across all years, all destinations, all age groups, and for men and women. In 2021-2023, 34 percent of individuals left their homes to find more work opportunities, 18 percent left their home to find a higher paid job, and 7 percent left to find better working conditions. At the same time, an increasing number of individuals migrated for education, as well.
In 2021-2023, 12 percent of migrants were household heads, most other migrants were either sons or daughters of the head. While between 2013 and 2016 only 44 percent of migrants had children when they migrated, in 2021-2023, 91 percent of migrants had children before they migrated. Overall, most migrants, regardless of their primary reason for migrating, had friends or relatives who had migrated to their destination before them, this includes 55 percent of internal migrants, and 58 percent of migrants abroad. Most migrants participated in most or all of the decisions to migrate. This was true for 85 percent of migrants that went abroad and 79 percent of migrants that remained within Myanmar. In Mandalay and Shan, fewer migrants fully participated in the decision to migrate.
The most common difficulties migrants faced include coming up with the money for migration, followed by travel restrictions, checkpoints, or roadblocks. The latter challenge became much more prominent after the coup. Other challenges include transportation related problems, unreliable agents, and a lack of housing during travel. Households incurred significant costs to be able to send individuals to live outside of their houses. Fifteen percent of households with internal migrants took out loans to pay for the cost of migration, and 6 percent of internal migrants themselves took out loans. Forty-seven percent of households took out loans to send household members overseas, and 18 percent of migrants themselves took out loans to move overseas. Migration costs were significantly higher to send migrants abroad versus to send migrants within Myanmar, 1.8 million MMK (885 USD) versus 181 thousand MMK (USD).
Migrants used agents to travel abroad not within Myanmar. This includes 56 percent of migrants who travelled to Thailand, 73 percent of migrants who travelled to Malaysia, and 44 percent who travelled to other countries. Over the entire period, 45 and 43 percent of migrants who travelled to Thailand and Malaysia had memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with an employer. Further, a larger percentage of migrants who travelled to Japan, Korea, and Singapore travelled with MOUs. Whereas 100 percent of migrants who travelled to Japan, Korea, and Singapore had passports, only 74, 81, 68, and 63 percent of migrants who moved to Thailand, Malaysia, China, and India brought passports.
Most migrants work in non-farm wage/salaried work. This includes 60 percent of internal migrants and 85 percent of overseas migrants. Forty-three percent of migrants abroad work in factories, compared to 18 percent within Myanmar. In Yangon, 35 percent of migrants work in factories, compared to 17 percent in Mandalay, 6 percent in Shan, and five percent in other states/regions. Seventeen percent of internal migrants work in construction. Construction is also an important source of income for migrants overseas, 20 and 23 percent of migrants in Thailand and China work in construction, respectively.
Sixteen percent of migrants who moved to other states/regions of Myanmar, excluding Yangon, Mandalay, and Shan, work in agriculture. Seven percent of migrants abroad work on a farm or a planation including 26 percent of migrants in China. Many overseas migrants are also employed in the hospitality sector, including 21 percent of migrants in Malaysia and 14 percent of migrants in other countries abroad. Other migrants are employed as domestic workers, including 21 percent of migrants in Japan, Korea, and Singapore.
In terms of the sector of the factory, most internal migrants work in garment factories, 58 percent. Factory work in the garment sector is less common abroad, 14 percent. Migrant factory workers abroad work in a wide range of factories including 22 percent in food and beverage factories, 16 percent in electronics factories, 11 percent in construction materials factories, and 11 percent in goods factories.
Of the individuals who migrated in 2019 and 2020, only 31 and 27 percent, respectively, have returned home, and most returned home the year after departure. Further, of the individuals who left in 2022 and 2023, thus far, 23 percent, and nine percent have returned home. Most migrants returned home because their jobs ended or because they lost their jobs. More male migrants returned home than females as well as more migrants with children compared to those without.
Conflict is an important driver of household member migration. The number of battles within a township that occurred during the three months prior to the interview is positively associated with the number of households sending migrants. Economic factors are also key drivers. Households who reported being negatively affected by high food prices are more likely to send migrants. Further, a higher average unskilled agricultural wage within the community is associated with less migration.
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